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CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Targum. Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. After the return from exile Aramaic gradually won the ascendancy as the colloquial language over the slowly decaying Hebrew until, from probably the last century before the Christian era, Hebrew was hardly more than the language of the schools and of worship. As the majority of the population ceased to be conversant with the sacred language it became necessary to provide translations for the better understanding of the passages of the Bible read in Hebrew at the liturgical services.
Thus to meet this need it became customary to add to the portions of the Scriptures read on the Sabbath an explanatory oral translation — a Targum. At first this was probably done only for the more difficult passages, but as time went on, for the entire text. According to the . When the lesson was from the . The directions also state which portions are to be read aloud but not translated (cf. This prohibition, however, probably referred only to the interpretation given in the synagogue and did not apply to private use or to its employment in study. In any case, written Targums must have existed at an early date.
Thus, for instance, one on the Book of Job is mentioned in the era of Gamaliel I (middle of the first century A. D.), which he, however, was not willing to recognize (. Zuckermandel). If Matthew 2. Aramaic form of Ps., xxi, 2, the last utterance of the Saviour upon the Cross, this shows that even then the Psalms were current among the people in the Aramaic language; moreover, Ephes., iv, 8, has a closer connection with the Targum to Ps., lxvii, 1. Masoretic text. In addition, the .
These manuscripts, however, were only owned privately not officially as for a long period the Targums were without authoritative and official importance in Palestine. This authoritative position was first gained among the Babylonian.
Jews and through their influence the Targums were also more highly esteemed in Palestine, at least the two older ones. In the form in which they exist at present no Targum that has been preserved goes back further than the fifth century. Various indication, however, show the great antiquity of the main contents of many Targums, their theology among other things. That as early as the third century the text, for instance, of the Targum on the Pentateuch was regarded by the synagogue as traditionally settled is evident from the . There are Targums to all the canonical books excepting Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah; for some books of the Bible there are several Targums. As regards age and linguistic character they may be divided into three classes: (1) Targum of Onkelos and Targum of Jonathan; (2) Jerusalem.
Targums; (3) Targum on the Hagiographa. The form of language used in the Targums is called specifically . It belongs to western Aramaic and more particularly to the Aramaic of Palestine. Its home in to be sought in Judea, the ancient seat of the learning of the scribes. It should be borne in mind that this Targumic language does not represent the spoken Aramaic, but is the result of the labours of scholars. Consequently the point under discussion turns on a literary Aramaic originally formed in Judea.
This is particularly true of the two earlier Targums; the later ones show generally an artificially mixed type of language. The traditional pointing of the texts is valueless and misleading: a more certain basis was first offered by manuscripts from Southern Arabia in which the pointing for the vowels was placed above the line. In Arabia the old synagogalcustom of reciting the Targum at the religious services had been retained, and consequently more interest was felt there in the pronunciation.
It must be acknowledged, however, that this cannot be regarded as a direct pronunciation of the Palestinian pronunciation; it may have sprung from a formal treatment of the Targum of Onkelos customary among the Babylonian scholars. As regards the method of translation all Targums in common strive to avoid as much as possible anthropomorphisms and anthropopathic terms, as well as other apparently undignified expressions concerning, and descriptive of God.
The Targums are printed in the Rabbinical and Polyglot Bibles, although the two do not always contain the same Targums or an equal number of them. See below for particulars as to individual editions. The Targum of Onkelos. The official Targum to the Pentateuch is designated by the name of Onkelos.
In the Babylonian. Talmud and in the Tosephta, Onkelos is the name of a proselyte who is mentioned as a contemporary of the elder Gamaliel (. Zuckermandel). The labours of Onkelos are referred to in . Gaon Sar Shalon (d. Pentateuch- Targum the Targum of Onkelos. This he did in an opinion concerning the Targum which he evidently had before him at the time in a written copy.
The designation that thus arose became customary through its acceptance by Rashi and others. It is evident, however, that in the passage mentioned (.
Aquila and his Greek translation of the Bible. Compare also Midrash, Tanchuma, Mishpatim, 9. Mantua, 1. 86. 3, fol. Thus it seems that in Babylonia the old and correct knowledge of the Greek translation of the proselyte.
Aquila was erroneously transferred to the anonymous Aramaic translation, that consequently Onkelos (instead of Akylas) is a corrupted form or a provincial modification of Aquila. The effort to prove the existence of an Onkelos distinct from Aquila is still made by Friedmann (. Lehranstalt in Wien. Thus it is not known who wrote the Targum named after Onkelos. In any case the Targum, at least the greater part of it, is old, a fact indicated by the connection with Rab Eliezer and Rab Josua, and belongs probably to the second, or it may be to the first century of our era. It arose, as the idiom shows, in Judea, but it received official recognition first from the Babylonian. Rabbis, and is therefore called by them .
Rab Natronay (d. 8. Pentateuch. The high reputation of this authorized translation is shown by the fact that it has a Masorah of its own. The fixing of the written form, and thereby the final settlement of the text as well, should not be assigned to a date before the fifth century. The language is, in general, an artificial form of speech closely connected with the Biblical Aramaic. It is probably not the spoken Aramaic used as a dialect by the Jewish people, but a copy made by scholars of the Hebraic original, of which the Targum claims to give the most faithful reproduction possible. In doing this the Aramaic language is treated similarly to the Greek in the translation of Aquila, consequently the many Hebraicidioms. There is no positive proof (Dalman, .
Anthropomorphic and anthropopathic expressions are avoided by roundabout expressions or in other ways; obscure Hebrew words are often taken without change into the text; proper names are frequently interpreted, as Shinar- Babylon, Ishmaelites- Arabs; for figurative expressions are substituted the corresponding literal ones. Haggadic interpretation is only used at times, for instance in prophetic passages, as Genesis 4. Dating Sites In Vancouver here. Numbers 2. 4; Deuteronomy 3. This Targum was first printed at Bologna (1. Hebrew text of the Bible and the commentary of Rashi; later, in the Rabbinical.
Bibles of Bomberg and Buxtorf, and with a Latin translation in the Complutensian. Polyglot (1. 51. 7), and the Polyglots of Antwerp (1. Paris (1. 64. 5), and London (1. Among separate editions of the Targum special mention should be made of that printed in 1. Sabbioneta. More modern editions are: Berliner, . I contains the text according to the Sabbioneta edition, and vol.
II, elucidations; the Yemanites at Jerusalem have printed with an edition of the Pentateuch (sefer Keter tora) from manuscripts the Arabic translation by Saadya (Jerusalem, 1. Barnheim, . In addition to the Latin translations in the Polyglot Bibles there is one by Fagius (Strasburg, 1. English translation by Etheridge, .
This assertion probably means that in his exposition he gives the traditional interpretation that had been handed down from one generation to another since early times. According to the Babylonian . The Babylonian. Talmud in quoting passages from this Targum ascribes them to Rab Joseph bar Hiya (d. Pumbaditha. Rab Joseph was regarded as a great authority on the tradition of the Targum and his judgment on the translation of many individual passages was eagerly listened to; he may perhaps be considered as the editor of this Targum. For Jonathan as for Onkelos the final settlement of the written form did not occur until the fifth Christian century. Cornill claims to show (.
Targum on the Prophets is older than the Torah- Targum, but the reasons produced are not convincing (cf. Dalman, 1. 5, passim). Linguistically, this Targum approaches most closely that of Onkelos; in grammatical construction the two are alike but the words used differ, and this Targum is more paraphrastic. In the historical books Jonathan himself is often the expounder, but in the actual prophetic books the exposition is in reality Haggadic.
The religious opinions and theological conceptions of the era that are interwoven are very instructive. The text, further, is not free from later additions; from this cause arise the double translations of which the Targum contains several.
At a later date the whole Targum was printed in the Rabbinical. Bibles of Bomberg and Buxdorf and in the Polyglot Bibles of Antwerp, Paris, and London. Really Young Russian Girls Naked. The last edition is that of de Lagarde, . There are supplementary additions to this from an Erfurt manuscript in . The Targum to the Haphtarah is to be found in what is called the Pentateuch edition of the Yemanites at Jerusalem.
English translations are: Pauli, . Fundamentally the language of these Targums is Palestinian Aramaic but of a very mixed type. Neither of them is homogeneous grammatically and lexically.